Time-of-flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) is now widely used for materials analysis in domains such as semiconductor and energy applications. These challenging applications also provide access to well-controlled, custom made samples that have allowed the limits of TOF-SIMS analysis to be identified and helped in the development of correlative analysis approaches. Recent examples include combining AFM measurements with TOF-SIMS depth profiling to correct for sputter rate differences [1] or to measure mechanical or electrical properties and performing X-ray tomography prior to FIB-TOF-SIMS analysis to allow morphological and compositional data from the same volume to be visualized [2]. Currently we are working on two aspects. Firstly improving the quantification and chemical sensitivity of the technique by combining TOF-SIMS with photoemission techniques (XPS or XPEEM), and secondly trying to improve the lateral resolution by correlation with SEM and AFM measurements. Recent examples will be shown for the analysis of beam sensitive organic samples such as OLED devices, brain tissue samples after medical device implantation [3] and symbiotic microorganisms [4]. As well as the correlative aspects between techniques, we will show how tandem mass spectrometry can help in analyzing complex organic samples. In all cases the importance of sample preparation is paramount, especially for biological samples. For example, for the correlation between TOF-SIMS and XPS on OLED samples, a wedge crater protocol has been developed to allow analysis on exactly the same area of the sample whilst minimizing beam damage to the sample. Wedge crater preparation and transfer between instruments is performed under a protected environment (vacuum or inert gas) to avoid unwanted surface modifications.

Part of this work, carried out on the Platform for Nanocharacterisation (PFNC), was supported by the “Recherches Technologiques de Base” and the “CARNOT” program of the French National Research Agency (ANR).

[1] M. A. Moreno et al. JVST B, vol. 36, MAY 2018.

[2] A. Priebe et al. ULTRAMICROSCOPY, vol. 173, pp. 10-13, FEB 2017.

[3] A. G. De Carvalho et al. Biointerphases, vol. 15, 2020.

[4] C. Uwizeye et al. PNAS. Vol 118, e2025252118, 2021.

Batteries are very important to achieve carbon net zero. Understanding battery materials change, electrode surfaces, solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) evolution and novel solid-state electrolyte structures is very helpful for developing better batteries. Surface chemical analysis techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman spectroscopy are often used but they have their limitations. XPS analysis cannot always resolve overlapping binding energies for some key SEI elements. The SEI often has poor Raman signal intensity. These are all hurdles for battery applications.

Secondary ion mass spectrometry has great potential to study interfacial chemistry in batteries owing to high sensitivity and high-resolution imaging in 2D and 3D.In this study, we use an OrbiSIMS instrument which is equipped with two complementary mass spectrometers (MS). A time-of-flight (ToF) MS has the capability for 2D and 3D imaging using a Bi₃⁺ liquid metal ion gun with a spatial resolution of up to 200 nm but with modest mass resolving power. The Orbitrap MS offers high mass resolution and mass accuracy (> 240,000 at m/z 200 and < 2 ppm, respectively). The instrument is equipped with low energy Cs and O₂ sputter beams for high resolution depth profiling of inorganic materials. It also has a Leica docking station enabling samples to be transferred using a vacuum sample transfer chamber from an argon glove box without atmospheric exposure. To improve the quality of measurements on battery materials, we have used ion implanted materials to determine relative sensitivity factors for relevant elements. We have also conducted a systematic study to optimise the OrbiSIMS depth profiling capability. These findings along with recommendations to reduce effects of signal saturation will be discussed and examples of the application to batteries will be provided. We will provide examples of the application of ToF MS and Orbitrap MS. (1,2)

1. X. Yao et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 2023, DOI: 10.1039/D2EE04006A.
2. S. Marchesini et al., ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces, 14(2022)52779-52793.

Interest in solid state lithium-ion batteries as the next generation of energy storage devices has led to intense study of the chemistry, structure, and manufacturing processes for polymer electrolytes. Lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI) salt is often used to introduce Li ions into the solid-state electrolyte. Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide salt (LiFSI) and lithium nitrate (LiNO₃) are less expensive salts with the potential to improve performance characteristics over pure LiTFSI in certain electrolyte formulations. The differences in distribution and reactivity of these different salts are still unknown but are critical to battery performance. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) imaging and depth profiling was performed to compare the distributions of Li⁺ cations and TFSI^-, FSI^-, and NO₃^-anions across the solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) formed between the polymer electrolyte and thin lithium metal electrode. Experiments were performed on ~600 nm salt-rich poly(ethylene oxide) electrolytes with ~10 nm overlayers of vapor-deposited Li metal. Samples were probed with 30 keV Bi₃⁺ from a liquid metal ion gun while depth profiling with 10 keV Ar₁₄₀₀ gas cluster ion beam to collect both positive and negative ion mass spectra. Ion distributions from the three salts and their 3D images will be presented and discussed in terms of the relative composition of their SEI layers. Chemical differences from ToF-SIMS analysis help explain the differences in electrochemical SEI formation and half cell cycling: LiTFSI and LiFSI are similar, but LiNO₃ presents much different electrochemical properties.

We recently reported that a rather large fraction (ca. 40 %) of the XPS peak fitting in the literature is at best suspect. In a recent Perspective article (doi: 10.1116/6.0002437) we argue that the various stake holders of the problem can act together to improve the current situation. This Perspective begins with representative examples of poor XPS peak fitting. The purpose of showing these examples is to demonstrate to the reader that we are not quibbling or arguing over subtle interpretations of the data. Increasingly, we see errors that might be classified as egregious. We argue that science is in a state of ‘pre-crisis’ more than in a state of ‘crisis’. We suggest that if too much incorrect data analysis enters the literature it may cease to be self-correcting. We note the very large number of surface and material characterization techniques available today and how this presents a challenge for scientists. Consequently, it is likely that many manuscripts are incompletely reviewed today. Graduate students and post-docs at research institutions are often given minimal training on acquiring and analyzing XPS data. High fees for instruments can limit access to them and student training. Prisoner’s dilemmas may help explain situations in science that lead to suboptimal outcomes for the community. Authors are primarily responsible for the quality of the research in their papers, not reviewers or editors. We question the wisdom of placing the names of reviewers and editors on papers. In some cases, staff scientists are not adequately recognized for their intellectual contributions to projects. Selective reviewing may allow more reviews to be performed without overtaxing the community. Reviewing at some open access journals may be inadequate. Collaboration needs to be encouraged to a greater extent at some institutions.

The growth of thin films with nanometer range thickness is of great importance for application topics as nanoelectronics, oxidation protection of thin films and optical coatings for X-ray applications. The performance of these coatings often critically depends on the sharpness of the interfaces between different layers. In this talk I will outline how we use Low-energy ion scattering (LEIS) to study interface formation between layers of different transition metals (TMs) and between TMs and Si.

LEIS with noble gas ions as projectiles yields surface peaks that indicate the composition of the outermost atomic layer of a sample. This makes the technique excellently suited to study whether deposition of a thin films leads to a closed layer. However, deposition of an overlayer on top of an underlayer may result in surface segregation of underlayer atoms (driven by surface energy differences or stress), such that the surface composition is not directly representative for the in-depth concentration profile. We analyzed the evolution of surface coverage versus deposited thickness for a large set of TM/TM film combinations, deposited by magnetron sputtering in a system that allows LEIS analysis without vacuum break after deposition. By applying a model that takes into account surface segregation, the interface profiles were derived from these layer growth profiles, which we call deposition depth profile. In addition, we demonstrated that the sharpness of interfaces in TM/TM film systems can be predicted by a phenomenological model with the crystal structure and surface energy of the materials as input parameter. This model in principle predicts the sharpness of the interface in any TM/TM thin film combination! [1]

Apart from surface peaks, LEIS spectra typically also contain so-called tails, caused by projectiles that, after sub-surface scattering, are reionized when leaving the sample. It was demonstrated before that LEIS tails can be used to determine thickness of various thin film systems, when the stopping power of the projectiles is known. Here, we show that LEIS tails can also be used to determine the sharpness of interfaces of few nm Si-on-W and Si-on-Mo films, by comparing LEIS measurements with Monte Carlo simulations with the TRBS code, which takes into account multiple scattering and stopping in the target. This approach allows interface characterization from a single sample, without the need to make a deposition depth profile.

References:

[1] A. Chandrasekaran, R.W.E. van de Kruijs, J.M. Sturm, A.A. Zameshin and F. Bijkerk, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 11, 46311 (2019)

Experiments were performed to explore the effects of various instrument settings and sample placements on secondary ion intensities to better understand what factors have the greatest effect on repeatability and replicability in TOF-SIMS. A batch of magnetic recording disks used in hard disk drive manufacture, natively flat and homogeneous, were used as test samples for the purpose. As expected, by far the largest variable altering raw intensities was the LMIG tip stability. LMIG tips can have stable emission currents while still producing variable pulsed LMIG beam currents with resultant variable secondary ion counts. This variability sometimes is seen in slow current drift, but is sometimes so rapid that measurements taken directly before each measurement are not close enough in time to properly scale the measurement results. In these cases, normalization is the only solution. Secondary ion intensities were remarkably insensitive to small variations in sample height (position relative to the extractor). Far more interesting were the changes to the secondary ion intensities that resulted from tilting the sample. These effects varied amongst the secondary ions detected such that normalization did not remove them. Secondary ion emission as a function of emission angle has long been understood to be like a cosine function and to vary somewhat from ion to ion. These different angular profiles explain the differences seen in ion detection as a function of tilt. Some of these differences proved to be asymmetrical, varying depending on whether the sample was tilted toward or away from the primary ion source, an indication that in some situations some residual momentum from the initial primary ion impact onto the surface is carried into the secondary ion emission. These results have implications for attempts to do quantitative analysis on any sample that is not completely flat.

Graphite-moderated reactors have been operational worldwide for several decades. There exists a substantial body of research in this domain, with particular emphasis on investigating the impact of irradiation damage on the graphite matrix. In order to satisfy the design and regulatory requisites of these advanced reactors, it becomes imperative to gain a deeper comprehension of the retention and transportation mechanisms of fission products within graphite.

This study outlines a technique for the precise assessment of the surface chemistry of highly-oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), serving as a representative model akin to the current graphite grades utilized in the nuclear sector. We delve into the process of surface etching aimed at eliminating surface adsorbates and contaminants. This process involves the utilization of both monatomic and cluster ions, the former inadvertently causing undesirable damage to the graphite structure. Such damage is evidenced by a significant reduction in the sp2 component of C 1s. We introduce the use of UPS analysis as a straightforward means of determining the presence of sp2 characteristics in the uppermost atomic layers.

Moreover, we examine the consequences of high-energy ion implantation (Cs+) and the ensuing damage to the HOPG surface. This examination is carried out using XPS (1486eV) and HAXPES (2984eV), thereby showcasing the capability to characterize the resulting surface damage and the associated alterations within the probed depths.